Low 25(OH)D concentrations might predispose patients with COVID-19 to severe outcomes not only via the associated hyperinflammatory syndrome but also by worsening preexisting impaired glucose metabolism and cardiovascular diseases. Several mechanisms have been proposed for the role of vitamin D in COVID-19, including modulation of immune and inflammatory responses, regulation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, and involvement in glucose metabolism and cardiovascular system. ![]() In observational studies, an inverse relationship has been found between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations and the risk or severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). ![]() Vitamin D is associated with biological activities of the innate and adaptive immune systems, as well as inflammation.
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